How effective is cognitive behavioural therapy in treating stress-related disorders - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2549 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Psychology Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Introduction Individuals respond to stressful events in different ways and their responses are influenced by a number of factors, such as personality characteristics or temperament, that can have an effect on the how the stressor is perceived (Anthony, Frederici, and Stein, 2009). Anxiety and stress are closely related, although stress tends to relate to a specific event or circumstances, whereas anxiety can be a non-specific, internal anticipation of something that might happen (Kahn, 2006). However, anxiety can cause stress for example, imagining the consequences of being late (anticipation). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How effective is cognitive behavioural therapy in treating stress-related disorders?" essay for you Create order Anxiety disorders are very common and can be debilitating and chronic, with patients experiencing distress over many years. It is suggested that anxiety is multifaceted and may be caused by biological factors for example, high levels of serotonin, which is also a factor in depression. Another contributing cause to anxiety appears to be hyperactivity in the amygdala region of the brain, which results in high levels of neuroticism and anxiety. People who have a tendency towards neuroticism, for example, are more likely to experience anxiety disorders and negative emotions in response to stressors (Eysenck, 1967; Gray 1982). Psychological treatments and interventions focus on cognitive processes and behavioural responses that attempt to explain the acquisition and continuation of anxiety disorders (Anthony, et al. 2009). The aim of the following essay is to examine the efficacy of CBT interventions on treating anxiety and stress-related disorders. Anxiety Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-V) classifies anxiety disorders into three main groups: anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders (OCD), and trauma and stress related disorders (American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2013). Anxiety disordersinclude separation anxiety disorder, phobias, social phobia, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and generalised anxiety disorder. Obsessive-compulsive disordersincludes hoarding disorder, while the third group, trauma and stressor-related disorders,includes post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder (DSM-V, APA, 2013). The DSM-V classifications of anxiety emphasise the relationship between disorders and therefore the possibility of comorbidity between anxiety, stress and depression (APA, 2013). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) As will be discussed in the following section, many of the stress and anxiety related conditions listed in the DSM-V category of anxiety disorders can be treated using cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). CBT aims to change negative and maladaptive thought patterns and behaviours to more positive ways of dealing with stress-related problems. Therapy is non-directive and a therapist will facilitate change through working with the client or patient to achieve a series of goals. The therapist will also challenge the clients negative beliefs and help the client develop strategies to manage their stress more effectively in the long term in order to prevent any relapses (Beck, 2011). Exposure-based CBT (Torp et al. 2015) has also been reported to be effective with young people and children. As discussed by Beck (2011) the relationship between the therapist and the patient is central to the success of the intervention, as it is necessary to have a rapport in order to sometimes discuss di fficult topics. The Efficacy of CBT in Stress-Related Disorders In their meta-analyses of 269 studies that used CBT in studies, including anxiety disorders and general stress, Hoffman, Asnaani, Vonk, Sawyer and Fang (2012) found that the most effective results were for anxiety disorders and general stress (together with bulimia, somatoform disorders and anger control). A study comparing 65 patients with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), who were randomly allocated to one of three groups CBT, relaxation techniques, and a control group of patients on the waiting list was undertaken by Dugas et al. (2010). The follow-up sessions took place 6-, 12- and 24-months after the intervention and consisted of self-report and clinician ratings. It was found that both CBT and relaxation were more effective than the control group, although long-term improvement continued only with CBT (Dugas et al. 2010). Other research has also found that CBT has been effective in generalised anxiety for example, Otte (2011) states that a number of studies have demon strated that CBT is effective for patients with anxiety conditions and states the efficacy and effectiveness of CBT in anxiety in adults appears to be well established (Otte, 2011, p.418). However, despite the positive findings, Otto also states that there are there are various methodological problems in many studies, for example studies that do not include a control group, and therefore the effect size of the intervention is more difficult to assess. CBT has also be found to be effective in anxiety disorders in children, although as Hogendoorn et al. (2014) reports there are children who do not respond and therefore greater research is necessary in order to understand the mechanism that allows some children to respond well, while other children do not. In a study that investigated childhood anxiety and depression using CBT intervention it was found that there were more positive effects for anxiety than for depression in terms of behaviour and coping strategies used by the children (Chu and Harrison, 2007). It was concluded that there are different factors involved when using CBT in the treatment of anxiety and/or depression. According to Leichsenring et al. (2013) social anxiety is a prevalent disorder that can cause severe psychosocial problems and can co-exist with other disorders such as depression. Social anxiety is characterised by an individual having a fear of social interactions and therefore affects a person ability to work and have a good quality of life (Yoshinaga et al. 2013). There have been a number of reports regarding the efficacy of CBT in treating social anxiety, although many studies have small sample sizes and are conducted in one location. In their study Leichsenring et al. (2013) assessed 495 outpatients who were randomly allocated to either CBT intervention, (n=209), psychodynamic therapy (n=207), or a waitlist control group (n=79). The patients baseline and post-treatment scores were compared using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Liebowitz, 1987). It was found that both CBT and psychodynamic therapy were effective in treating social anxiety. Yoshinaga et al. (2013) also evaluated CBT and social anxiety in Japan using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Liebowitz, 1987). The aim of the study was to assess whether results in Japan would be similar to those in Western countries. The intervention was over a 14 week period and measurements of social anxiety were taken before during and after the intervention. It was found that CBT was effective although there were a number of limitations in the study. The sample size was very small, with only 15 patients, which limits the generalisability of the study to other patients, particularly as it was a single-centre study. Another limitation was that the participants were mainly females, which again can limit generalisability of the findings to male patients. There was also no long-term follow-up, so the effects of CBT in preventing relapse were not assessed. Furthe rmore many patients were also taking medication which was not controlled for and may have had an effect on the results. Another stress-related condition which can cause serious impairment is OCD. The condition in adolescents and children is similar to that of adults, and OCD often begins in childhood (Torp et al. 2015). In a study undertaken in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, patients aged between 7- and 17-years diagnosed with OCD received CBT intervention in a community setting over 14 weeks. The study was an uncontrolled trial, which meant all patients received exposure CBT and were assessed using the Children Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Scahill, et al. 1997), which both children and their parents completed, as well as other measures. The children had a range of behavioural and emotional problems and the study involved therapists and health professionals who evaluated the intervention. A strength of the study was that it was undertaken in different centres in three coun tries, which means it has good generalisability. The number of participants was also relatively high, which was also a strength of the study. The professionals helped the children and their parents complete the treatment and the findings showed a high success rate which was rated independently. It was concluded by Torp et al. (2015) that exposure-based CBT is an effective treatment for OCD in community children and adolescent outpatient clinics. The severity of the symptoms decreased in the patients and some were described as being in remission. However, there were a few limitations in the study for example, the group was not ethnically diverse and the trials were not randomised (Torp et al. 2015). A final area where CBT has been found to be effective in stress-related disorders is PTSD, which is a disorder which can occur after an individual has experienced a major traumatic event. Typical symptoms include re-living the event, recurring thought of the event, avoidance, numbing and detachment and estrangement from family and other people. In looking at the efficacy of CBT in treating PTSD, Bisson and Andrew (2007) undertook a systematic review of research in which patients had been evaluated by clinicians for traumatic stress symptoms as well as self-rating by the patient of stress, anxiety and depression. Treatment included Trauma focused CBT (TFCBT), exposure therapy, stress management which included hypnotherapy and group CBT and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) and a waitlist control group with no intervention. The findings showed that TFCBT, EMDR and group CBT were all effective in treating PTSD. In the long-term TFCBT and EMDR were found to be more effective, although some of the studies were found to have methodological flaws which means the data must be interpreted with caution. After the attack on the Twin Towers in New York, the CATS consortium was established to help deal with the trauma experienced by young people and als o to assess the outcomes of the intervention using CBT. The CATS Consortium (2010) report on the efficacy of CBT being used with children and adolescents aged between 5- and 21-years who were traumatised after the attack. The young people (n=306) were allocated to one of two groups depending on the severity of their trauma. The first group involved trauma-specific CBT and the second group, brief CBT. The findings showed that for both groups there was a decrease in their symptoms and they were no longer diagnosed as having PTSD, and it was also found that the therapy could be effectively delivered in the community by trained professionals. The limitations of the study were that the design did not conform to a typical randomised controlled study and a control group was not used. The circumstances around the study were chaotic in the days after the attack and, as the authors state, the children may have improved without any treatment or intervention, which is, of course, the purpose of a controlled group. Nonetheless, the study has provided useful information regarding the use of CBT for young people after a traumatic event. Conclusion Overall, the evidence presented demonstrates that CBT is an effective intervention in a number of different stress-related conditions identified by the DSM-V (APA, 2013). Meta-analyses and systematic reviews are able to provide robust evidence regarding the effectiveness of interventions using CBT, although, as has been discussed, there are a number of methodological issues with some of the studies used in meta-analyses. Some of the limitations include small sample sizes, for example, which means that generalisation to other groups is not possible. Another limitation is the lack of a control group, where, as discussed by CATS Consortium (2010), the patients who were traumatised after the attack on the Twin Towers in New York may have recovered spontaneously over time without any intervention, and this can only be observed in a control group which has no intervention. Another potential issue is the use of different measures such as self-report and clinicians measures (Dugas et al. 2 010), in comparison to other studies which used validated questionnaires such as Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (Leichsenring et al. 2013). This means that comparisons between studies are more difficult. However research using CBT has taken place in a number of different contexts and cultures for example, Norway, Sweden and Denmark (Torp et al. 2015) and also Japan (Yoshinaga, et al. 2013) and has been shown to be effective. References American Psychiatric Association, (APA, 2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V, fifth edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Anthony, M.M., Frederici, A. and Stein, M.B. (2009). Overview and introduction to anxiety disorders. In M.M. Anthony and M.B. Stein (Eds) Oxford Handbook of Anxiety and Related Disorders, pp. 3-18. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Beck, J.S. (2011). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: Basics and Beyond. New York: Guildford Press. Bisson, J, and Andrew, M. (2007). Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Art. No.: CD003388. CATS Consortium (2010). Implementation of CBT for youth affected by the world Trade Center disaster: matching need to treatment intensity and reducing trauma symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 699-707 Chu, B.C. and Harrison, T.L. (2007). Disorder-specific effects of CBT for anxious and depressed youth: a meta-analysis of candidate mediators of change. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 352-372 Dugas, M.J., Brillion, P., Savard, P., Turcotte, J., Gaudet, A., Ladouceur, R., Leblanc, R. and Gervais, N.J. (2010). A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioural therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 41(1), 46-58. Eysenck, H.J. (1967). The Biological Basis of Personality. Springfield, Il. Charles C. Thomas. Gray, J.A. (1982). The Neuropsychology of Anxiety. Oxford; Clarendon. Hoffman, S.G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I.J.J., Sawyer, A.T. and Fang, A. (2012). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy Research, 36(5), 427-440 Hogendoorn, S.M., Prins, P.J.M., Boer, F., Vervoort, L., Wolters, L.H., Moorlag, H., Nauta, M.H., Garst, H., Hartman, C.A. and de Haan, E. (2014). Mediators of cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety-disordered children and adolescents: co gnition, perceived control, and coping. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 43(3), 486-500. Kahn, A.P. (2006). The Encyclopedia of Stress and Stress-Related Diseases, (second edition). New York: Infobase Publishing Leichsenring, F., Salzer, S. Beutel, M.E., Herpertz, S., Hiller, W., Hoyer, J., Huesing, J., Joraschky, P., Nolting, B., Poehlmann, K., Ritter, V., Stangier, U., Strauss, B., Stuhldreher, N., Tefikow, S., Teismann, T., Willutzki, S., Wiltink, J. and Leibing, E. (2013). Psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy in social anxiety disorder: A multicentre randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 759-767. Liebowitz, M.R. (1987). Social Phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141-173 Otte, C. (2011). Cognitive behavioural therapy in anxiety disorders: current state of the evidence. Dialogues Clinical Neuroscience 13, 413-412. Price, M. and Anderson, P.L. (2011). The impact of cognitive behavioral therapy on post event processing among those with social anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 49(2) 132-137. Scahill, L., Riddle, M.A., McSwiggin-Hardy, M. and Ort, S.I., King, R.A., Goodman, W.K., Cicchetti, D., and Leckman, J.F. (1997). Childrens Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: reliability and validity. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6) 844-852 Torp, N.C., Dahl, K., Skarphedinsson, G., Thomsen, P.H., Valderhaug, Weidle, B., Melin, K.H., Hybel, K., Nissen, J.B., Lenhard, F., Wentzel-Larsen, T., Franklin, M.E. and Ivarsson, T. (2015). Effectiveness of cognitive behavior treatment for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: Acute outcomes from the Nordic Long-term OCD treatment study (NordLOTS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 64, 15-23. Yoshinaga, N., Ohshima, F., Matsuki, S., Tanaka, M., Kobayashi, T., Ibuki, H., Asano, K., Kobori, O., Shiraishi, T., Ito, E., Nakazato, M., Nakagawa, A., Iyo, M. and Shimizu, E. (2013). A preliminary study of individual cognitive behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder in Japanese clinical setting: a single arm uncontrolled trial. BioMed Central (BMC) Research Notes 6, 74-81

The Physics Of Pole Vaulting - 1471 Words

Pole vaulting is a an Olympic sport categorised as an athletic event where a vaulter must use a pole to push themselves up and over a high bar in an attempt to vault themselves over the highest placed bar in order to win. Many variables come into play of pole vaulting which can allow for the athlete to vault themselves the highest including the length of the run and pole, the bend of the pole, the correct generation of speed and a strong strike into the box. There are many forces and energies involved in the physics of pole vaulting which can provide reasoning for why and how people can vault themselves over such great heights and still successfully land safely after falling from such great heights. FORCES As the vaulter prepares for the vault to occur and starts to run down the track they need to be wearing appropriate footwear with a large surface area. This will result in a large amount of friction being produced between the sole of the shoe and the ground, allowing the vaulter more traction whilst running down the track as more of the sole of the shoe is in contact with the path. This allows the vaulter to accelerate to faster speeds due to the traction caused by the athlete’s shoes. This relates to Newton’s second law of motion which is: If an object changes its motion (=accelerates) then an unbalanced (net) force is acting on it in the direction of the acceleration. The traction of the shoes allows the vaulter to accelerate as if they were to run at a constantShow MoreRelated Physics in Sports Essay1462 Words   |  6 PagesPhysics in Sports nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;When many people think of sports, the topic of physics doesnt always come to mind. They usually dont think about connecting athletics with academics. In reality math, science, and especially physics, tie into every aspect of sports. Sports are a commonality that brings nations together, Soccer, known as football to most of the world, is said to an unspoken language, which unties people from different lands through a passion to play a game. AthleticsRead MoreA Brief History Of Pole Vault2398 Words   |  10 PagesBackground A Brief History of Pole Vault Pole vaulting has been around since the time of the ancient Greeks. Poles were made of solid wood and used to vault over obstacles such as marshes, trenches and even walls. [1] It wasn’t until around 1850 that a running form of pole vault competition emerged from Germany. The United States saw pole vaulting just before the beginning of the 20th century. Women’s pole vault began in the olympics around the year 2000. [2] Now, poles are made of fiberglass or carbonRead MoreTechnology Has Changed Sports Over The Years, Without A Doubt2855 Words   |  12 PagesKay Duit Professor Wilson Physics 1003-01 16 November 2014 Research Paper Technology has changed sports over the years, without a doubt. Many rules have changed because of technology. Not only rules have changed, also decision-making has been affected by technological improvements. However, a lot of technological improvements are very expensive and therefore cannot be applied in every sporting event. Especially amateur athletes and clubs do not have resources to apply the newest technologies in theirRead MoreEssay about Athens, Greece852 Words   |  4 Pagescontestants were not nationally chosen but rather came individually and at their own expense. Some contestants were tourists who happened to be in the area during the Games. Athletes wore their athletic club uniform rather than a national team one. Pole-vaulting, sprints, shot put, weight lifting, swimming, cycling, target shooting, tennis, marathon and gymnastics were all events at the first Olympics. The swimming events were held in the Bay of Zea in the Aegean Sea. A gold medalist described it: I w onRead MoreSport Science13852 Words   |  56 Pageshowever, in a competitive market, practising a skill repeatedly to improve is not always enough. Learning skills has become a science in itself. Now, to reach the top of their game, athletes need to understand and consider the nature of skills, the physics of movement and the athletes’ own physical attributes and psychology. The following chapters delve into the science of learning skills that will assist you to develop and reï ¬ ne physical skills and maximise your sporting potential. Focus questions

The Workforce Free Essays

The workforce is contingent with the teamwork of personnel and state. The workforce remain the main concern of employers everywhere. All areas of employment are touched by economics and its affected by births, plus the quality of training each person receives. We will write a custom essay sample on The Workforce or any similar topic only for you Order Now 100 years ago, jobs were manufacturing in nature, what I mean is that individuals worked in factories or on an assembly lines. These types of positions weren’t very challenging because it’s a situation that was repetitious as the worker repeat steps. Subsequently new technology happens to be more demanding, very aggressive and creative. Women are employed within position that once was considered â€Å"only men were productive in. Work shifts are divided into three shifts for several organizations. They’re basically eight hours a shift and the employee usually work forty hours a week. Over the years the workforce has added four generation of workers. This has caused a distinctive effect on the workforce causing them to face the age differences. The HR knows that the workforce of the past consequencely will impact the future status of many organizations. They know that achieving their goal depends on how they hire workers. Also, the facts show that countless people are not retiring but are carrying on working well past the age of 65. HR specialists find that they’re having to formulate additional resolutions to link the demands relating to the workforce with the aging workers. Which requires HR specialists to understand and be able to execute ways to create jobs and to fill them with acceptable workers. Meanwhile workers and jobs are always transforming so organizations realize that they have diversity and the skill to maintain a balanced workforce being competent to accomplish their goals for the future of the organization. Also, companies have moved to global level with improved technology and communication. Besides more women employees entered the workforce which was not the state 100 years ago where women lives tended to be centered around their families. During World War I changed who the workforce would use once the men were either volunteering or being drafted to serve in the military which resulted in there was no one to fill the positions. So businesses hired the women to work in the men’s place. After showing the factories that the women were capable to carry out the duties that the men could do, but they were paid less for the same job. Since then women have demanded rights for equal pay and equal treatment. Because the workforce have become more diverse with gender, age, and culture it has caused organizations to change how they attain workers and maintain their numbers. The older workers are still present in the workforce is making HR to consider alternative ways for hiring, training, and what type of benefits plans to offer as enticements.Today HR managers needs to spend considerable time and money in training in new technology and keep them updated. The future US workforce groups in 2025 would be mostly aged population over 60 years. The workforce I filled with many kinds of technology such as computers, internet, smart phones and many mobile devices that has opened communication where everything seems to move at the speed of light. Therefore, HR will need to be on their toes to meet every task in the future. How to cite The Workforce, Papers

Cuban Missile Crisis Essay Research Paper In free essay sample

Cuban Missile Crisis Essay, Research Paper In October 1962 USA discovered Soviet atomic bases on Cuba. This was merely 70 stat mis off from the US coastline. It was literally in America s back-yard. It came as a daze to the Americans because Cuba and the US had such close ties so late and this was traveling against such ties. This beginning is from a historiographer named Stephen E. Ambrose. This means that it is a dependable beginning because history books have to travel through cheques from other historiographers. It tells of the Executive Committee that Kennedy appointed to rede him on the state of affairs. It is of import as it shows the importance of Kennedy s brother, Robert Bobby Kennedy. It was he that persuaded Kennedy to take the option of a encirclement of Cuba which stopped any military goods being transported to Cuba. This would non coerce an immediate response from Khruschev. The Soviet missiles with their payloads could lay waste to huge countries of the American continent. The missiles could make every bit far as south California. This map shows the work stoppage scope of the Cuban base. The full East Coast of America can be destroyed with such metropoliss as New York and Washington D.C. good within the country. If the missiles were to be launched so it would be a catastrophe. Kennedy was faced with the most unsafe crisis of the Cold War, and in the history of world. The universe looked on in fright of the jailbreak of World War III. If this were to go on so both sides would unleash their armory. These beginnings show the technological panic that could be unleashed. Source A1 shows a image of the baleful mushroom cloud that a atomic detonation would bring forth. A immense looming mass of fume, dust and fire. Source A2 ( I ) and A2 ( two ) show information on the atomic pigboats and their Polaris missiles, which could be fired, from any ocean in the universe. Kennedy s advisers told Kennedy that now was the clip to assail. Some, nevertheless, opposed to military action such as that. Kennedy decided to obstruct Cuba. This was a good determination. The encirclement began on Wednesday 24th October. The NAVY encirclement consisted of 100 war vessels environing Cuba. The US was cognizant of a fleet headed to Cuba, which was suspected to be keeping missiles. The fleet was escorted by one pigboat ; if they needed to the NAVY could hold easy defeated the fleet. The encirclement did non acquire the missiles off the island ; it did nevertheless give Kennedy more clip. This besides switched the determination devising to USSR ; it was their move. The lone ships that were stopped by the encirclement were 1s transporting violative military equipment. The encirclement played on the strengths of the US, as their NAVY was the strongest around the universe. But tensenesss were lifting. This is a British sketch from the Daily Mail. It shows the crisis as an old fashioned, wild west confrontation. With Kennedy apparently being the Sheriff and Khruschev being the no good brigand. The missile crisis was a confrontation. The hope of the universe was that neither would name DRAW! The Soviet fleet turned back and tensenesss loosened. The crisis was non over though. The missiles were still on Cuba. On Friday 26th October Kennedy received a missive from Khruschev. The missive promised that the missiles would be removed if the Americans complied with the followers: 1. The encirclement must stop. 2. The US must non occupy Cuba. The Crisis was over. The Soviets said, in the missive, that they wanted to avoid war at all costs. On Saturday 27th October another missive came. There was a different tone to this 1. It seemed more aggressive. The missive said that they Soviets would draw the missiles out of Cuba if the Americans pulled their missiles out of Turkey. USA was confused about the ground for this alteration. What ground would Khruschev hold to endanger the peace that had seemed so near merely a twenty-four hours before? Some advisers were concerned that on Friday the generals had taken over from Khruschev. If true it would do it harder now to settle the difference and halt the crisis. There was no manner the US would draw out of Turkey. Kennedy did non cognize how to react. He was faced with another quandary. Kennedy could non endorse down. Bobby Kennedy enters once more. He told Kennedy non to worry about the 2nd missive. He advised that Kennedy merely disregard it. Kennedy replied to the Soviets holding to the footings of the first missive. If there were no answer by Monday 29th October so USA would occupy Cuba. The Soviets replied on Sunday 28th October. It was accepted. The crisis was over. It had seemed that Kennedy was the master and Khruschev, the looser. Khruschev saw himself as the victor. Kennedy got the missiles removed and Khruschev managed to salvage Cuba from invasion. If Khruschev wanted war so there would hold been nil to halt it go oning. Khruschev deserves recognition for halting the crisis, as he didn t lead the state of affairs to war. This is an American sketch demoing both Kennedy and Khruschev working together to forestall atomic war. Kennedy succeeded acquiring the missiles off Cuba and avoided war. He was the Savior of the western universe. He steered the west through the most unsafe crisis Mankind had seen with a small aid from Khruschev and Bobby Kennedy.

Questions for Ap Us History Essay Example

Questions for Ap Us History Essay Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress (pp. 1-11) 1. According to Zinn, what is his main purpose for writing A Peoples History of the United States? To tell history from the viewpoint of the victims and not overlooking what the country has done to become what they are today. It includes the cruelty and hardships the people had to go through. 2. What is Zinns thesis for pages 1-11? He will be as blunt as he can to show what history has hidden from people. To tell history from the victims point of view, thus the title, a peoples history. . According to Zinn, how is Columbus portrayed in traditional history books? He is portrayed as a hero for discovering the United States. They barely mention in detail what happened to the Indians and what they had to go through,. All that matters is that he discovered the land that is called America now. They justify what was done. 4. Why does Zinn dispute Henrys Kissingers statement: History is the memory of states? Kissingers statement came from a the leaders point of view. The people who won. Zinn wants to show history through the minds of the nations and communities that lost.If history is seen through the states point of view, it is neglecting the viewpoint of the victims. 5. What is Zinns basic criticism of historian Samuel Eliot Morisons book, Christopher Columbus, Mariner? Columbus used Christ as an excuse to continue his cruelty towards the Natives. The only thing that was pure about him was his seamanship. 6. What major issues does Bartolome de las Casas bring up regarding Spanish expeditions in the Caribbean? He describes what the Spanish expeditions are doing to the Native Americans who live in the area. He also wrote about how the Natives used to live before the Spanish came.He describes their cruelty and how inhumane it is. 7. Identify one early and one subsequent motive that drove Columbus to oppress indigenous peoples. He wanted slaves and gold to keep his promise to the King and Queen of Spain because they p romised him 10% of their profits, govern the land he found, and gain the title Admiral of the Ocean Sea. 8. What was the ultimate fate of the Arawak Indians? They were taken prisoner, slaved, killed, or raped. They tried to resist by fighting, but they couldnt stand up to the Spanish military, so they started mass suicides by eating cassava poison.It led to severe depopulation because the mothers would kill their child to save them from the Spaniards. Their overall population went from the thousands, to mere hundreds. Chapter 1: Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress (pp. 2-22) 1. Compare the strategies and motives underlying the conquest of the Aztecs by Cortez and the conquest of the Incas by Pizzaro. Cortez tricked the Aztecs into believing he was their long lost God, Quetzalcoatl, into giving him mountains of gold and silver. Pizzaro did something similar, and for the same reasons, for gold, silver, and slaves to finance their country. . What were the major causes of war bet ween the Powhatans and the English settlers? One of the causes was when the settlers killed fifteen or sixteen Indians, burned down their houses, stole their food, and killed the tribe queen and her kids. Their only reason was because the Indians took in starving settlers who stayed with the Indians by choice. They finally declared war when the Indians decided to wipe out the growing English settlers, killing 347 of them. 3. Discuss the significance of Powhatans statement, Why will you take by force what you may have quietly by love? Powhatans statement meant that he didnt want this war, he wanted a quiet and peaceful life with his family. He is willing to give the settlers what they want, and provide them food, in exchange for a peaceful life. 4. Explain Governor John Winthrops legal and biblical justification for seizing Indian land. The Indians only had a natural right to their land, and not a civil right. Also, as long as it was Gods will, then those who resisted will be killed. 5. According to Roger Williams, how did the English usually justify their attacks on the Indians? They usually come up with an excuse that said that they were defending themselves. . What ultimately happened to the estimated 10 million Indians living in North America at the time of Columbus arrival? It was reduced to less than a million. 7. Evaluate the statement: If there are sacrifices to be made for human progress, it is not essential to hold to the principle that those to be sacrificed must make the decision themselves? The people who are being sacrificed for human progress should be the ones to make the decisions themselves. How would they feel about it? Is it okay for them to die for something that they dont think is necessary?Do they think it is necessary? If I ask a random stranger or a child to die for human progress, they would outright refuse. However cruel it is, these hardships are justified because it was for human progress. 8. How does Zinn attempt to prove that the Indians were not inferior? Provide examples. He didnt want call them Indians, since it was the name that the conquerors has given them, namely Columbus. But then he states how amazing it was for them to migrate thousands of miles from Asia to America, creating hundreds of different cultures, and two thousand languages.Then he stated how they perfected the art of agriculture, cultivating corn, and develop variety of vegetables, fruits, and create peanuts, chocolate, tobacco, and rubber. They were also able to create canals, dams, ceramics, baskets, forts, and clothes. He greatly mentioned how smart they were as well, staying in groups, dividing labor, creating houses and villages. When compared to the English, they were much kinder, and very courteous. Women were also treated respectfully. Chapter 2: Drawing the Color Line 1. According to Zinn, what is the root of racism in America?When the first black people settled into Virginia, they were considered servants, an inferior status. When slavery became more popular, racial feelings began from hatred, or contempt, or pity, or patronization. 2. Why were Africans considered better slaves than Indians in Virginia? The Indians were at their home country, they can easily run away and find shelter and food if they did. They were strong, resourceful, and defiant towards being enslaved. 3. How did 16th century Africa compare to 16th century Europe politically, economically, and militarily? Their military were far too vulnerable against the European guns and ships.Their culture was thought to be easily destroyed. But the actual civilization was advanced in its own way. They were skilled farmers, weavers, ceramicists, and artists. Some kingdoms were stable and organized. 4. How did slavery in Africa differ from slavery in Europe and the Americas? African slaves in Africa are treated like serfs in Europe and America. The slaves were treated harshly, but slaves in Africa werent treated as harshly as slaves in Europe. But t hey could not draw blood. When Africans came to Europe became slaves, they had no rights or hope for any kind of future. 5.Describe the conditions that slaves on ships coming to America (Middle Passage) The Africans were packed into slave ships, at the very bottom of the ship. They were chained together and had to smell their own wastes. The space was so tight, some couldnt even move, and they could barely breathe. Some are driven to the point of killing others so that they could breathe, some would drown themselves to end their suffering. Even though many died on the trip, the slave traders profit was high, and didnt care. 6. What was the position of the Catholic Church in Portugal vis-a-vis slavery?Slavery was legal by church doctrine. 7. In terms of morality, what was the cost of slavery? Compassion of human nature. 8. What was the relationship between slavery and the plantation system? Slavery grew when the plantation system grew. 9. What evidence exists that Americas slaves did not accept their fate easily? From the very beginning, they resisted being taken away from their home. Even through two centuries of being hunted, enslaved, mutilated, humiliated, etc, they continued to resist. Usually, they run away, other times they refuse, or show some sign of resistance to keep their dignity as human beings.They even taught the Indians disobedience. When enslaved, they would pretend to be sick, destroyed crops, stores, tools, and sometimes attacked or killed overseers. They had a black market of things they had stolen, those who ran away became fugitives, some would return, some would try leaving the country, and some would band together and create a small villages or hide-outs in the wilderness. 10. Why did slave owners fear poor whites? They feared that the discontent poor whites would actually join the black slaves. The poor whites and slaves both wanted reconstruction of the legal system.Chapter 3: Persons of Mean and Vile Condition 1. What is Zinns thesis in this chapter? The internal conflicts of the new state had many phases, the one explained in this chapter were of the slaves, servants, and discontent people who wanted changes. 2. What was the underlying cause of Bacons Rebellion? Bacons discontent towards the government, and its need for redress. He wanted as much followers as he could, and convinced many people to join his cause. To get it, he even put some brandy to lighten the mood for them to sign a paper. 3. What was the double motive of the Virginia government vis-a-vis Bacons Rebellion?One was to redress the Virginia government, and also, to go to war against the Indians. The Indians were making them work much harder to provide for the war. 4. What groups of people took part in Bacons Rebellion? A mixture of slaves, servants, free men, and some Englishmen. 5. Explain indentured servitude (also known as the head right system). Those who went to America, either by force or by their own decision, needed a type of sponsor, a master, to pay for the trip. In return, that person had to go to America and serve that master for a set amount of years and create a profit for them in the new lands. 6.How did the voyage of indentured servants to America compare with the Middle Passage. They were also packed into small spaces, stuck there for weeks. Sometimes, they would run out of food, and sometimes they would die of diseases. 7. What generally happened to indentured servants after they became free? They had to constantly prove that they were free. Some became important and successful and become landowners. Others would become artisans or overseers. But most arent that fortunate, they would end up living on the streets as poor people or die. 8. To what extent did a class structure emerge in America by 1700?The rich has all the land, money, and council seat. The poor barely had anything. In the 1700s, the distinction between the rich and the poor were obvious. They created a poor house, work house, and house of correction. The gap between the rich and the poor continued to grow. 9. Explain the statement: The country therefore was not born free but born slave and free, servant and master, tenant and landlord, poor and rich. The country was not free due to America being under control of England, serving as a master-servant type, with England being master.The country was born through the rich and poor coming together during the Revolution. 10. How did the rich manage to keep Indians at a distance? They slowly inch their property towards their land, little by little, forcing the Indians to move. But the actual people who are in danger are the poor who are sent out towards the west, with the protection of the government. Therefore, they can start a small war against the Indians, or start a big one. 11. Explain the statement: racism was becoming more and more practical. Racism soon became a natural thing to do back in those days.Since the court continuously widened the difference between how the white servants and black servants were being treated. Chapter 4: Tyranny is Tyranny 1. What is the thesis of this chapter? The creation of the United States was a huge step forward in history, but like any country, they suffered from some kind of internal conflict, one of the major ones being the large gap between the rich and poor. 2. According to Zinn, how did the creation of the United States benefit the upper class? They gained wealth with how much they were importing and exporting. England greatly depended on the United States. . Why were both Loyalists and leaders of the Revolution concerned about the lower classes in Philadelphia? They were concerned that they would start riots. In the mid 1700s, the poor people would attack the houses of the rich and steal their belongings as a way to revolt against the unfair treatment of the government. 4. According to Zinn, who was Paine really represent? He represented the urban artisans who wanted a central government. He wanted to unite the people. 5. What groups of Americans were deprived of the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence? Indians, black slaves, women. They considered Indians as savaged people who steal and kill the inhabitants of the towns. They considered black slaves as servants, nothing more, they dont need rights and such. Women just didnt have respect as they do now. 6. What is the irony Zinn tries to convey concerning John Locke? The philosophy that the Declaration of Independence had that was Lockes was to secure their life, liberty and property, although they put pursuit of happiness instead of the property part. Its very ironic because Locke was not poor, he was wealthy.He already have a steady income in life, he was in the higher class who had more rights, and already had plenty of property. 7. Explain the statement: Tyranny is Tyranny let it come from whom it may. The people mean that no matter what you do, they will always be controlled somehow. It is seen all through out history, those with power will become corrupt. Tyrants are typically wealthy people, and they can always pay to get out of war, which leaves the poor people to do their work. The poor always suffer from they tyranny of the wealthy. Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution Part I (pp. 76 88) 1.What support did the Revolutionary War effort have among the colonial population? Around a third of the population opposed to the Revolution, a third who supported, and the rest was neutral. Even so, at least the fifth of the population were supportive of Britain. 2. What impact did slavery have on the war effort in the South? Slavery got in the way in the South. The constant slave uprisings kept their military busy in the South. 3. What incentives did the Revolutionary War leaders use to attract recruits? The promises of being able to rise the ranks and make money for themselves or have money for after the war.They could also acquire a higher social status. 4. What was the British strategy conce rning slavery in the South? The British promised freedom to the slaves in the South if they joined his forces. 5. How is the general perception that the Revolution engendered the separation of church and state challenged by Zinn? The state was not separated from the church at all, some states actually forced everyone to take on Christianity. 6. How did land confiscated from Loyalists reflect the Revolutions effort on class relations? Class relations did not really change, but it gave land to the farmers. . How does Edmund S. Morgans summary of the class nature of the Revolution challenge the popular perception of the Revolution and its ideals? How does Richard Morris statement also challenge popular perception? Morgans perception of the Revolution was a power struggle, to raise social status between those in the upper class. Morriss views were inequality, the people who gain something from it are the white people, not the slaves, the poor, Indians, or women. 8. Explain Carl Deglers assertion that no new social class came to power throughout the door of the American revolution. The Revolution did not bring about a new social structure, it was still the rich, the poor, and some in between. The people who started the Revolution were still at the head of America, they were still some of the wealthiest people in the State. 9 . What was the impact of Americas victory on the Native Americans? The Native Americans were constantly losing their land. Even though some were allied with the French, they still took their land, therefore, the Native Americans wanted them out, and started conflict. 10.Explain Jennings statement: The Revolution was a multiplicity of variously oppressed and exploited peoples who preyed upon each other. There were multiple things happening during the Revolution. This was mostly due to land disputes. While the Natives fought the colonists, the colonists fought with the British. Eventually the Natives fought with the British as the colonists were losing their land to the Natives. Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution Part II (pp. 88 101) 1. What is Charles Beards thesis in An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution vis-a-vis the Founding Fathers and the creation of the Constitution?The rich are the ones that are controlling the government for their own personal gain. The things written in the Constitution is mostly for the advantage of the rich. He basically believes that it was made by the rich for the rich since the people who wrote the constitution all had favorable economic backgrounds. The Constitution did not include the rights of the slaves, indentured servants, women, men without property. And so the Constitution did not reflect the interests of those groups. 2. What was Daniel Shays objective? For the Constitution to be fair.He wanted for people to be free of debt by putting in paper money. 3. What was Thomas Jeffersons view of popular uprisings? Contrast his view with those of the established leadership. Jefferso n believes that uprisings are actually healthy for society. He believes that every uprising brings about a change, refreshing the country. 4. Why does Zinn state that democracys problem in post-Revolutionary America was not primarily due to Constitutional limitations on voting? He believes that its due to the division of society into rich and poor. The rich already has so many things, voting is just one of the things that the rich has, they already have education, money, newspaper, etc. 5. Why does Zinn assert that despite party differences among Federalist and Democratic-Republicans they were both fundamentally similar? They both wanted to unite to share their prosperity. They both expected to have a agreement with compromises. 6. How does Zinn characterize the Constitutions compromises? To unite the thirteen states, both the Norths interest in money, and the Souths interest in slaveholding, they compromised so that all the states can prosper. 7.How does the Constitution illustrate the complexity of the American system? The American system shows that the Constitution are helpful to the rich. The Constitution is enough for middle classed people, and small property owners, and some farmers. They do this for unity. 8. How does the Constitution contract clause or tax clause favor rich over poor? The Constitution will protect the actual contractor, which is the rich. Meanwhile the poor is weak under the law, and cannot do anything if they are forced to do what the contract specified. 9. How does Zinn argue the First Amendment is not as stable as one might assume?The Sedition Act of 1798 said that it is illegal to write anything that is false, scandalous and malicious which kind of ironic when the First Amendment is freedom of speech. 10. How does Zinn contrast the governments enforcement of the First Amendment and the power to tax? The First Amendment can be used during court, and the person can freely say whatever he wanted, but afterwards, they can be arrested o r legally punish the speaker afterwards, or the writer. So the First Amendment actually has a lot of faults, even though it seems like a favorable rule. 11.How does Zinn refute Bernard Bailyns view of the creation of the Constitution. Bailyn wished that the Constitution had balance in power. But the founding fathers actually did not want that, they wanted to keep as much power as they could to themselves. But Bailyn wanted equal balance between everyone, including slaves, Indians, women, and the poor. Chapter 7: As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs 1. What is the major theme (recurring idea) in this chapter. The major theme was the Native Americans trying to survive with the pressure of the Americans moving westward, taking their land, raids, and diseases. 2.What evidence does Zinn cite to illustrate the overall impact of Indian removal? He cited Michael Rogins Fathers and Children. It tells statistics on how much the Americans increased in fifty years, and their migration towards the West. There were also statistics on how many Indians were living in the area, and how much the population decreased. 3. Contrast Thomas Jeffersons views as Secretary of State concerning Indian policy with those during his presidency. Why did his views change? When Jefferson was Secretary of State, he was fine with the Indians having their land since they lived there long before any American.He didnt want anyone to bother them. But when he became president, with the pressure he was getting from the people, he took their land. 4. How does Andrew Jacksons early political/military career foreshadow his Indian policies as President? Even before Jackson became president, he already thought of Indians as a nuisance, and wanted to get rid of them. 5. How does Zinns view of the War of 1812 contrast with traditional histories? Zinn believes that war wasnt necessary, it was just to take land. 6. Explain Zinns view of Arthur Schlesingers The Age of Jackson and Marvin Meyers The Jacksonian P ersuasion.He believes that the book mostly explains Jacksons good views, it makes him look like a very good guy. The book doesnt include what he did to the Indians. It only talks about his economic and political successes. 7. To what extent did the Cherokee nation change its culture in order to survive within the U. S? The Cherokee had to change location, culture, heritage, and even religion to survive. They even started to own slaves and welcomed missionaries and Christianity. Even though they did this, the whites still wouldnt accept them. 8. To what extent does Zinn juxtapose the Nullification Controversy of 1832 and the enforcement?

The Current Nature Of Human Relations Essays - Behavior, Free Essays

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Shinto Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Bob Marleys Uprising Album - Essay Example This "Bob Marley’s Uprising Album" outlines one of the most popular album of the icon of the reggae music. The album uprising was the last song released by Marley one year before his death. This album has been reported to be the most religious of all the albums that he released as it directly addresses his Rastafarian beliefs. The album as number 41 in the American billboard black album charts and number 45 in the pop music charts. In the UKO charts the album was among the top ten best songs. Could you Beloved was number 5 in the top UK singles chart. Besides talking about are religious beliefs, the album covers a number of themes. His religion affects his singing from smoking marijuana; believe in Haile Selassie and being a vegetarian. The belief that Selassie was a black prophet from Africa who set the path to righteousness and that marijuana aided in meditation and brought the user close to God. The first song â€Å"Coming from the Colds shows Marley will to continue to fight over personal and political freedom notwithstanding the views of other simple minded people. He shows that the people that serve Jah have no limits in what they can achieve in life. In the song â€Å"Zion† he continues to exhort the message of hope in the first song. The song â€Å"work† voices one of everybody’s concerns about work where he asks why people have to work very hard in order to get a reward from people who do appreciate the effort. â€Å"Pimper’s paradise† addresses the issue of prostitution where Marley ad vices a girl to sop selling her body for money. and using drug as she would end up losing her soul. He also talks about cocaine in this song as a portrayal of some of the world

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I - SEARCH PAPER - Essay Example economy to an extent that can only be speculative. What is known is that the impact will be nothing short of catastrophic regarding both the earth and economy. In much of the previous century, oil was largely viewed worldwide as an economic asset and ever-expanding tool for increasing mobility needs and is today the primary cause of air pollution through the medium of oil-burning automobile engines. The dependence on oil now threatens many national economies, their security and the environment as well. Not only can the world not endure fossil fuels being pumped into the atmosphere at the current rate for the next 30 years, most experts agree that in 30 years, the world’s supply of oil will be largely depleted. Only by quickly implementing alternative sources of automobile fuel and electricity on a large scale can this looming disaster be averted. Hybrid cars seem to provide at least a temporary answer until better technologies are developed. Because they burn less oil, hybrid cars are considered a step in the right direction. This discussion will review many aspects of the hybrid car including an explanation of what a hybrid car is and how they save fuel thereby emitting fewer pollutants, their popularity and their risks. In An Inconvenient Truth, former Vice-President Al Gore demonstrates with clever use of computer graphics the extent to which the U.S. is, by far, the unenviable world leader in fossil fuel emissions. His plea to change energy use habits is good advice for everyone and every nation but is unambiguously directed at an American audience. â€Å"First, we need to make major changes in our preferences and habits concerning our personal cars, housing patterns, and consumption patterns. This is true especially in the U. S. because our nation consumes the lion’s share of the world’s fossil fuels to sustain our rich standard of living† (â€Å"An

Role of Prosody in Language Acquisition

Role of Prosody in Language Acquisition Discuss the role of prosody (i.e. rhythm and intonation) in language acquisition, from early sound perception to sematic and syntactic development. From muffled sounds heard within the womb to singing our favorite songs by memory, we humans have the astounding ability to acquire language. The remarkable thing is that we are born without full-blown language comprehension and production. How is it then that we steadily progress into competent speakers of our mother tongue? A big part lies in the prosody of our native language. Although babies may not be able to speak, they begin to learn about language prenatally. Given that our auditory system is well developed in the womb, a fetus can process sounds as early as 28 weeks of gestation, according to Fernald in 2001 and Saffran and colleagues in 2006 (as cited in Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). While speech sounds are muffled because the fetus is enclosed within the womb, preventing proper individual phoneme identification, there is still perception of rhythm and intonation (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). Rhythm and intonation are components of prosody, along with other sound features such as stress, pitch, loudness, and duration (Erekson, 2010, pg.80). Newborns are then able to gain prenatal language experience with sounds made by their mothers and other people close by (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). Babies even have a preference for sounds that became familiar when they were in the womb. In a study by Mehler and colleagues in 1988 it was found that prenatal expe rience allowed babies to distinguish their native language from a foreign language (Brooks Kempe, 2012, g.28). In their study, which utilized sucking rate, French newborns could tell French sentences apart from Russian sentences, even when the sentences were passed through a low-pass filter to make them sound like they would be heard from within the womb (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.28). This study showed that newborn infants are sensitive to prosodic characteristics of language (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.28). Prosody has important implications in language acquisition even before an infant is born but also continues to be an essential tool throughout their early years when they begin to engage with more experience speakers. Although infants pay attention to their surroundings and are taking in all the different sounds they hear, they are not the only active participants. When people interact with babies, they do not treat them in the same manner they would treat older children or adults. Instead, they expose them to a very distinct aspect of language known as infant-directed speech (IDS) or â€Å"motherese† (Goswami, 2008, pg.148). This special register helps facilitate language learning because of its exaggerated prosodic nature; this emphasizes the boundaries between words and phrases, thus making segmentation of the speech stream easier for babies (Goswami, 2008, pg.148). According to Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith in 2001 baby humans learn the rhythm of their native languages from birth to 2 months of age (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.495). During this time infants pay special attention to their language input and are particularly interested in IDS, which is characterized by simplified vocabular y, repetition, exaggerated vowels, higher tone, wider range of tone, and a slower tempo (Falk, 2004, pg. 495). These are important differences infants seem particularly sensitive to at young ages when prosody plays such a key in language acquisition. Aside from having characteristics based on the prosody of speech to help infants learn their native languages, IDS seems to be universal; it is seen in all languages in cultures, implying that this prosodic way of speaking serves a developmental purpose (Goswami, 2008, pg. 154). Adults break down the language for babies to understand better, and doing so almost instinctively, showing the intuitiveness prosody has in language comprehension and production. Prosody also helps babies learn a thing or two about syntax early on. According to Levitt in 1993, at 10 months infants start to babble in rhythms that are similar to the prosody of their language structure (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith say this may be due to the vocal turn-taking that mothers and their babies engage in, helping the babies learn the â€Å"rule† that conversationalists take turns speaking, as seen in their research in 2001 (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). Snowdon (1990) states that this â€Å"social syntax† may help babies learn other rules that are preliminary to learning syntax, the proper arrangement of elements within sentences (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). IDS therefore helps teach babies syntax through phonological bootstrapping, which is fulfilled by paying attention to the correlations between the prosodic cues of IDS and linguistic categories, according to the works of Burnham et al. in 2002, Gleitman Warn er in 1982, Morgan in 1986 and Morgan Demuth in 1996 (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). An infant’s perception of prosodic cues in relation with linguistic categories is essential to learn about phonology, the boundaries between words or phrases in their native tongue, and syntax (Falk, 2004, pg.496). Prosody not only matters when it comes to learning the music of the first language learned but also seems to help teach other components of the language as well. As infants grow older and gain more experience with language, they continue a path towards language mastery and more complicated language use. While young babies use prosody to help tell words apart, it isn’t until they get older that prosody is fully used to tell syntactic relationships (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.94). However, there is mixed research as to when exactly children begin to use prosody to understand ambiguous sentences (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.94). A study in 2008 by Snedeker and Yuan found that children used prosodic phrasings of sentences to the syntax ‘correctly’ and perform an instrumental action (as cited in Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97-98). In their study they did a toy-moving scenario using sentences, such as ‘You can tap the frog with the flower’, with two disambiguating phrasings (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97). Regardless of the prosodic phrasing, such as [You can tap the frog] [with the flower] versus [You can tap] [the frog with the flower], re sults showed that the children used the location of prosodic boundaries to interpret the correct syntax of the sentences (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97). Additionally, prosody seems to help syntactic acquisition early on. In a study in 2014 by Hawthorne and Gerken, it was found that 19 month old infants treated prosodically-grouped words as more cohesive and constituent-like than words that straddled a prosodic boundary (pg.420). Because syntactic constituency, groups of words that serve as cohesive units in sentences, is an important part in the early levels of syntax acquisition, prosody is seen as essential concept in language acquisition as a result (Hawthorne Gerken, 2014, pg.420). Although it may be debatable when syntax development exactly begins, a big puzzle piece to figure it out lies in prosody. Prosody continues to help humans from infancy to childhood not only in the syntax of their language but also the semantics. In a study by Nygaard et al in 2008 it was investigated whether speakers were able to successfully make prosodic correlates to meaning across semantic domains and if they used these cues to interpret meaning of novel words (pg.127). The study showed that listeners were able to match new words with their proper meaning significantly more if the prosody used matched the word correctly (Nygaard et al., 2009, pg.127). With their findings, Nygaard and colleagues were able to support that speech has reliable prosodic markers to word meaning and that listeners use the prosodic cues of words to differentiate their meanings (Nygaard et al., 2009, pg.127). New research is also finding prosody to be an essential component for semantic comprehension and development in children. It was previously suggested that children did not utilize prosody to figure out the meanings of n ew words. This was due to studies like Sasso’s 2003 investigation using children age 4 years old and adults, where she found that the children did not readily use prosodic cues to determine the meaning of a new word like the adults did, even when instructed to do so (Sasso, 2003). However, recently in 2011, Herold and colleagues investigated whether children utilized prosodic correlates to word meaning when interpreting new words (Herold et al., 2011, pg.229). They sought to examine if children would interpret a word spoken in a deep, loud, slow voice as referring to something larger than a word said in a high, quiet, and fast voice (Herold et al., 2011, pg.229). It was found that by 5 years old children were successfully utilizing prosody to interpret meaning (Herold et al., 2011, pg. 236). In addition, there were differences in performances between 4 year old and 5 year old participants, suggesting a developmental change in children’s ability to use prosodic cues to infer meaning (Herold et al., 2011, pg.236). Herold and colleagues believed this may do to 4 year olds not yet able to understand that prosody can be used as a tool for novel word interpretation due to insufficient experience with prosodic information and meaning relations (Herold et al., 2011, pg. 236-237). While semantic development in children does not seem to be fully and effectively utilized before age 5, it seems to be on meet a critical transition at this point after children have a certain amount of exposure to their native language. Many studies in linguistics and psychology demonstrate the multiple roles that prosody plays in the acquisition of language from prenatal infants to adults with fluency of their native language. What begins as sound that catches the interest of prenatal humans steadily becomes sound that serve a purpose in language comprehension. While research continues to explore the implications of prosody, there is no denying that it plays a vital and fundamental part in human language. References Brooks, P., Kempe, V. (2012). Language Development (pp. xv-383). Chichester: BPS Blackwell. Erekson, J. (2010). Prosody and Interpretation. Reading Horizons, 50(2), 80-98. Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol50/iss2/3 Falk, D. (2004). Prelinguistic Evolution in Early Hominins: Whence Motherese? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27(4), 491-541. Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://journals.cambridge.org.ezp.lib.rochester.edu/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=onlineaid=276842fileId=S0140525X04000111 Goswami, U. (2008). Cognitive Development: The Learning Brain (p. 457). Hove: Psychology Press. Hawthorne, K., Gerken, L. (2014). From pauses to clauses: Prosody facilitates learning of syntactic constituency. Cognition, 133(2), 420-428. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.07.013 Herold, D., Nygaard, L., Chicos, K., Namy, L. (2011). The developing role of prosody in novel word interpretation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(2), 229-241. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.005 Nygaard, L., Herold, D., Namy, L. (2009). The Semantics of Prosody: Acoustic and Perceptual Evidence of Prosodic Correlates to Word Meaning. Cognitive Science, 33(1), 127-146. doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2008.01007.x Sasso, D. S. (2003). The developing role of prosody in novel word comprehension. (Order No. 1413020, Emory University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 46-46 p. Retrieved April 24, 2015, from http://search.proquest.com/docview/250019098?accountid=13567 Speer, S., Ito, K. (2009). Prosody in First Language Acquisition Acquiring Intonation as a Tool to Organize Information in Conversation. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(1), 90-110. Retrieved April 24, 2015, from http://linguistics.osu.edu/files/Publication-Prosody in First Language Acquisition.pdf

The 2nd Vatican Council Essay -- History Religion Catholic Religious E

The 2nd Vatican Council Starting with the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Catholic Church established a tradition of ecumenical Council meetings to help decide on and shape the future of the Church. The most recent Council, called Vatican II, is considered to be both the largest ever in scope and also the most ground breaking in the amount of change it yielded. The changes in doctrine, dogma and procedure they enacted had major effects both inside and outside the Catholic Church and continue to today. Before the Vatican II the Catholic Church was an aging dinosaur, still crippled by the Reformation and unable to relate to contemporary man. It emerged from it a modern Church, tolerant and accepting of other religions, accessible to the laity and ready to grip with this age of reason over faith. I contend that the Vatican II council, while not being perfect or perhaps as progressive as it should have been, was just what the Catholic Church needed if it intended to maintain its status as one of the largest denominations on Earth. This paper is divided up in to two portions, the first a historical account of events of the council and the second an analysis of the most important of the 16 documents approved by the assembled Fathers and their effect on the Catholic Church. WHAT HAPPENED On January 25th 1959, Pope John XXIII announced that he was assembling what was to be the 21st ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church. He proclaimed to his closest advisors that the purpose of the council would be â€Å"to proclaim the truth, bring Christians closer to the faith, and contribute at the same time to peace and prosperity on earth.† Pope John immediately made it very clear that his papal reign, which up until this point was considered rather inconsequential, was going to make a difference. Councils of the church are called to contemplate and reevaluate the church’s position on matters such as church administration, doctrine and discipline. An ecumenical council is a worldwide council that can only be called by the pope. All bishops and other high-ranking members of the whole church are to be present. This was to be the first major council in the Church since the original Vatican Council that was convened in 1869-1870. Immediately after the pope’s order the Vatican’s bureaucracy of religious leaders, which is known as the Curia, sprung... ...ly did little more than grant official consent to the beliefs that were already present by that time in the minds of the majority of Fathers. It still was a necessary step and required a lot of bravery on the part of those involved. Without it the Church may well have become a trivial antiquity too stuck in its old ways to be in any way relevant to the modern world. Works Cited Basset, Bernard. Preist in the piazza. Goal line tribute to a council, with illustrations by Penelope Harter. Fresno: Academy Guild Press, 1963. Berkouwer, G.C. The Second Vatican Council and the new Catholicism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965 Caporale, Rock. Vatican II: Last of the councils. Balitmore: Helicon, 1964. Catholic Church: Pope John XXIII. Apostolic letter of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II: on the 25 anniversay of the promulgation of the conciliar Constitution â€Å"Sacrosanctum Concilium† on the Sacred Liturgy. Washington D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1988. MacEoin, Gary. What Happened at Rome? The Council and Its Implications for the Modern World. Garden City: Doubleday, 1966. Ratzinger, Joseph. Theological Highlights of Vatican II. New York: Paulist Press, 1967.