Questions for Ap Us History Essay Example

Questions for Ap Us History Essay Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress (pp. 1-11) 1. According to Zinn, what is his main purpose for writing A Peoples History of the United States? To tell history from the viewpoint of the victims and not overlooking what the country has done to become what they are today. It includes the cruelty and hardships the people had to go through. 2. What is Zinns thesis for pages 1-11? He will be as blunt as he can to show what history has hidden from people. To tell history from the victims point of view, thus the title, a peoples history. . According to Zinn, how is Columbus portrayed in traditional history books? He is portrayed as a hero for discovering the United States. They barely mention in detail what happened to the Indians and what they had to go through,. All that matters is that he discovered the land that is called America now. They justify what was done. 4. Why does Zinn dispute Henrys Kissingers statement: History is the memory of states? Kissingers statement came from a the leaders point of view. The people who won. Zinn wants to show history through the minds of the nations and communities that lost.If history is seen through the states point of view, it is neglecting the viewpoint of the victims. 5. What is Zinns basic criticism of historian Samuel Eliot Morisons book, Christopher Columbus, Mariner? Columbus used Christ as an excuse to continue his cruelty towards the Natives. The only thing that was pure about him was his seamanship. 6. What major issues does Bartolome de las Casas bring up regarding Spanish expeditions in the Caribbean? He describes what the Spanish expeditions are doing to the Native Americans who live in the area. He also wrote about how the Natives used to live before the Spanish came.He describes their cruelty and how inhumane it is. 7. Identify one early and one subsequent motive that drove Columbus to oppress indigenous peoples. He wanted slaves and gold to keep his promise to the King and Queen of Spain because they p romised him 10% of their profits, govern the land he found, and gain the title Admiral of the Ocean Sea. 8. What was the ultimate fate of the Arawak Indians? They were taken prisoner, slaved, killed, or raped. They tried to resist by fighting, but they couldnt stand up to the Spanish military, so they started mass suicides by eating cassava poison.It led to severe depopulation because the mothers would kill their child to save them from the Spaniards. Their overall population went from the thousands, to mere hundreds. Chapter 1: Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress (pp. 2-22) 1. Compare the strategies and motives underlying the conquest of the Aztecs by Cortez and the conquest of the Incas by Pizzaro. Cortez tricked the Aztecs into believing he was their long lost God, Quetzalcoatl, into giving him mountains of gold and silver. Pizzaro did something similar, and for the same reasons, for gold, silver, and slaves to finance their country. . What were the major causes of war bet ween the Powhatans and the English settlers? One of the causes was when the settlers killed fifteen or sixteen Indians, burned down their houses, stole their food, and killed the tribe queen and her kids. Their only reason was because the Indians took in starving settlers who stayed with the Indians by choice. They finally declared war when the Indians decided to wipe out the growing English settlers, killing 347 of them. 3. Discuss the significance of Powhatans statement, Why will you take by force what you may have quietly by love? Powhatans statement meant that he didnt want this war, he wanted a quiet and peaceful life with his family. He is willing to give the settlers what they want, and provide them food, in exchange for a peaceful life. 4. Explain Governor John Winthrops legal and biblical justification for seizing Indian land. The Indians only had a natural right to their land, and not a civil right. Also, as long as it was Gods will, then those who resisted will be killed. 5. According to Roger Williams, how did the English usually justify their attacks on the Indians? They usually come up with an excuse that said that they were defending themselves. . What ultimately happened to the estimated 10 million Indians living in North America at the time of Columbus arrival? It was reduced to less than a million. 7. Evaluate the statement: If there are sacrifices to be made for human progress, it is not essential to hold to the principle that those to be sacrificed must make the decision themselves? The people who are being sacrificed for human progress should be the ones to make the decisions themselves. How would they feel about it? Is it okay for them to die for something that they dont think is necessary?Do they think it is necessary? If I ask a random stranger or a child to die for human progress, they would outright refuse. However cruel it is, these hardships are justified because it was for human progress. 8. How does Zinn attempt to prove that the Indians were not inferior? Provide examples. He didnt want call them Indians, since it was the name that the conquerors has given them, namely Columbus. But then he states how amazing it was for them to migrate thousands of miles from Asia to America, creating hundreds of different cultures, and two thousand languages.Then he stated how they perfected the art of agriculture, cultivating corn, and develop variety of vegetables, fruits, and create peanuts, chocolate, tobacco, and rubber. They were also able to create canals, dams, ceramics, baskets, forts, and clothes. He greatly mentioned how smart they were as well, staying in groups, dividing labor, creating houses and villages. When compared to the English, they were much kinder, and very courteous. Women were also treated respectfully. Chapter 2: Drawing the Color Line 1. According to Zinn, what is the root of racism in America?When the first black people settled into Virginia, they were considered servants, an inferior status. When slavery became more popular, racial feelings began from hatred, or contempt, or pity, or patronization. 2. Why were Africans considered better slaves than Indians in Virginia? The Indians were at their home country, they can easily run away and find shelter and food if they did. They were strong, resourceful, and defiant towards being enslaved. 3. How did 16th century Africa compare to 16th century Europe politically, economically, and militarily? Their military were far too vulnerable against the European guns and ships.Their culture was thought to be easily destroyed. But the actual civilization was advanced in its own way. They were skilled farmers, weavers, ceramicists, and artists. Some kingdoms were stable and organized. 4. How did slavery in Africa differ from slavery in Europe and the Americas? African slaves in Africa are treated like serfs in Europe and America. The slaves were treated harshly, but slaves in Africa werent treated as harshly as slaves in Europe. But t hey could not draw blood. When Africans came to Europe became slaves, they had no rights or hope for any kind of future. 5.Describe the conditions that slaves on ships coming to America (Middle Passage) The Africans were packed into slave ships, at the very bottom of the ship. They were chained together and had to smell their own wastes. The space was so tight, some couldnt even move, and they could barely breathe. Some are driven to the point of killing others so that they could breathe, some would drown themselves to end their suffering. Even though many died on the trip, the slave traders profit was high, and didnt care. 6. What was the position of the Catholic Church in Portugal vis-a-vis slavery?Slavery was legal by church doctrine. 7. In terms of morality, what was the cost of slavery? Compassion of human nature. 8. What was the relationship between slavery and the plantation system? Slavery grew when the plantation system grew. 9. What evidence exists that Americas slaves did not accept their fate easily? From the very beginning, they resisted being taken away from their home. Even through two centuries of being hunted, enslaved, mutilated, humiliated, etc, they continued to resist. Usually, they run away, other times they refuse, or show some sign of resistance to keep their dignity as human beings.They even taught the Indians disobedience. When enslaved, they would pretend to be sick, destroyed crops, stores, tools, and sometimes attacked or killed overseers. They had a black market of things they had stolen, those who ran away became fugitives, some would return, some would try leaving the country, and some would band together and create a small villages or hide-outs in the wilderness. 10. Why did slave owners fear poor whites? They feared that the discontent poor whites would actually join the black slaves. The poor whites and slaves both wanted reconstruction of the legal system.Chapter 3: Persons of Mean and Vile Condition 1. What is Zinns thesis in this chapter? The internal conflicts of the new state had many phases, the one explained in this chapter were of the slaves, servants, and discontent people who wanted changes. 2. What was the underlying cause of Bacons Rebellion? Bacons discontent towards the government, and its need for redress. He wanted as much followers as he could, and convinced many people to join his cause. To get it, he even put some brandy to lighten the mood for them to sign a paper. 3. What was the double motive of the Virginia government vis-a-vis Bacons Rebellion?One was to redress the Virginia government, and also, to go to war against the Indians. The Indians were making them work much harder to provide for the war. 4. What groups of people took part in Bacons Rebellion? A mixture of slaves, servants, free men, and some Englishmen. 5. Explain indentured servitude (also known as the head right system). Those who went to America, either by force or by their own decision, needed a type of sponsor, a master, to pay for the trip. In return, that person had to go to America and serve that master for a set amount of years and create a profit for them in the new lands. 6.How did the voyage of indentured servants to America compare with the Middle Passage. They were also packed into small spaces, stuck there for weeks. Sometimes, they would run out of food, and sometimes they would die of diseases. 7. What generally happened to indentured servants after they became free? They had to constantly prove that they were free. Some became important and successful and become landowners. Others would become artisans or overseers. But most arent that fortunate, they would end up living on the streets as poor people or die. 8. To what extent did a class structure emerge in America by 1700?The rich has all the land, money, and council seat. The poor barely had anything. In the 1700s, the distinction between the rich and the poor were obvious. They created a poor house, work house, and house of correction. The gap between the rich and the poor continued to grow. 9. Explain the statement: The country therefore was not born free but born slave and free, servant and master, tenant and landlord, poor and rich. The country was not free due to America being under control of England, serving as a master-servant type, with England being master.The country was born through the rich and poor coming together during the Revolution. 10. How did the rich manage to keep Indians at a distance? They slowly inch their property towards their land, little by little, forcing the Indians to move. But the actual people who are in danger are the poor who are sent out towards the west, with the protection of the government. Therefore, they can start a small war against the Indians, or start a big one. 11. Explain the statement: racism was becoming more and more practical. Racism soon became a natural thing to do back in those days.Since the court continuously widened the difference between how the white servants and black servants were being treated. Chapter 4: Tyranny is Tyranny 1. What is the thesis of this chapter? The creation of the United States was a huge step forward in history, but like any country, they suffered from some kind of internal conflict, one of the major ones being the large gap between the rich and poor. 2. According to Zinn, how did the creation of the United States benefit the upper class? They gained wealth with how much they were importing and exporting. England greatly depended on the United States. . Why were both Loyalists and leaders of the Revolution concerned about the lower classes in Philadelphia? They were concerned that they would start riots. In the mid 1700s, the poor people would attack the houses of the rich and steal their belongings as a way to revolt against the unfair treatment of the government. 4. According to Zinn, who was Paine really represent? He represented the urban artisans who wanted a central government. He wanted to unite the people. 5. What groups of Americans were deprived of the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence? Indians, black slaves, women. They considered Indians as savaged people who steal and kill the inhabitants of the towns. They considered black slaves as servants, nothing more, they dont need rights and such. Women just didnt have respect as they do now. 6. What is the irony Zinn tries to convey concerning John Locke? The philosophy that the Declaration of Independence had that was Lockes was to secure their life, liberty and property, although they put pursuit of happiness instead of the property part. Its very ironic because Locke was not poor, he was wealthy.He already have a steady income in life, he was in the higher class who had more rights, and already had plenty of property. 7. Explain the statement: Tyranny is Tyranny let it come from whom it may. The people mean that no matter what you do, they will always be controlled somehow. It is seen all through out history, those with power will become corrupt. Tyrants are typically wealthy people, and they can always pay to get out of war, which leaves the poor people to do their work. The poor always suffer from they tyranny of the wealthy. Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution Part I (pp. 76 88) 1.What support did the Revolutionary War effort have among the colonial population? Around a third of the population opposed to the Revolution, a third who supported, and the rest was neutral. Even so, at least the fifth of the population were supportive of Britain. 2. What impact did slavery have on the war effort in the South? Slavery got in the way in the South. The constant slave uprisings kept their military busy in the South. 3. What incentives did the Revolutionary War leaders use to attract recruits? The promises of being able to rise the ranks and make money for themselves or have money for after the war.They could also acquire a higher social status. 4. What was the British strategy conce rning slavery in the South? The British promised freedom to the slaves in the South if they joined his forces. 5. How is the general perception that the Revolution engendered the separation of church and state challenged by Zinn? The state was not separated from the church at all, some states actually forced everyone to take on Christianity. 6. How did land confiscated from Loyalists reflect the Revolutions effort on class relations? Class relations did not really change, but it gave land to the farmers. . How does Edmund S. Morgans summary of the class nature of the Revolution challenge the popular perception of the Revolution and its ideals? How does Richard Morris statement also challenge popular perception? Morgans perception of the Revolution was a power struggle, to raise social status between those in the upper class. Morriss views were inequality, the people who gain something from it are the white people, not the slaves, the poor, Indians, or women. 8. Explain Carl Deglers assertion that no new social class came to power throughout the door of the American revolution. The Revolution did not bring about a new social structure, it was still the rich, the poor, and some in between. The people who started the Revolution were still at the head of America, they were still some of the wealthiest people in the State. 9 . What was the impact of Americas victory on the Native Americans? The Native Americans were constantly losing their land. Even though some were allied with the French, they still took their land, therefore, the Native Americans wanted them out, and started conflict. 10.Explain Jennings statement: The Revolution was a multiplicity of variously oppressed and exploited peoples who preyed upon each other. There were multiple things happening during the Revolution. This was mostly due to land disputes. While the Natives fought the colonists, the colonists fought with the British. Eventually the Natives fought with the British as the colonists were losing their land to the Natives. Chapter 5: A Kind of Revolution Part II (pp. 88 101) 1. What is Charles Beards thesis in An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution vis-a-vis the Founding Fathers and the creation of the Constitution?The rich are the ones that are controlling the government for their own personal gain. The things written in the Constitution is mostly for the advantage of the rich. He basically believes that it was made by the rich for the rich since the people who wrote the constitution all had favorable economic backgrounds. The Constitution did not include the rights of the slaves, indentured servants, women, men without property. And so the Constitution did not reflect the interests of those groups. 2. What was Daniel Shays objective? For the Constitution to be fair.He wanted for people to be free of debt by putting in paper money. 3. What was Thomas Jeffersons view of popular uprisings? Contrast his view with those of the established leadership. Jefferso n believes that uprisings are actually healthy for society. He believes that every uprising brings about a change, refreshing the country. 4. Why does Zinn state that democracys problem in post-Revolutionary America was not primarily due to Constitutional limitations on voting? He believes that its due to the division of society into rich and poor. The rich already has so many things, voting is just one of the things that the rich has, they already have education, money, newspaper, etc. 5. Why does Zinn assert that despite party differences among Federalist and Democratic-Republicans they were both fundamentally similar? They both wanted to unite to share their prosperity. They both expected to have a agreement with compromises. 6. How does Zinn characterize the Constitutions compromises? To unite the thirteen states, both the Norths interest in money, and the Souths interest in slaveholding, they compromised so that all the states can prosper. 7.How does the Constitution illustrate the complexity of the American system? The American system shows that the Constitution are helpful to the rich. The Constitution is enough for middle classed people, and small property owners, and some farmers. They do this for unity. 8. How does the Constitution contract clause or tax clause favor rich over poor? The Constitution will protect the actual contractor, which is the rich. Meanwhile the poor is weak under the law, and cannot do anything if they are forced to do what the contract specified. 9. How does Zinn argue the First Amendment is not as stable as one might assume?The Sedition Act of 1798 said that it is illegal to write anything that is false, scandalous and malicious which kind of ironic when the First Amendment is freedom of speech. 10. How does Zinn contrast the governments enforcement of the First Amendment and the power to tax? The First Amendment can be used during court, and the person can freely say whatever he wanted, but afterwards, they can be arrested o r legally punish the speaker afterwards, or the writer. So the First Amendment actually has a lot of faults, even though it seems like a favorable rule. 11.How does Zinn refute Bernard Bailyns view of the creation of the Constitution. Bailyn wished that the Constitution had balance in power. But the founding fathers actually did not want that, they wanted to keep as much power as they could to themselves. But Bailyn wanted equal balance between everyone, including slaves, Indians, women, and the poor. Chapter 7: As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs 1. What is the major theme (recurring idea) in this chapter. The major theme was the Native Americans trying to survive with the pressure of the Americans moving westward, taking their land, raids, and diseases. 2.What evidence does Zinn cite to illustrate the overall impact of Indian removal? He cited Michael Rogins Fathers and Children. It tells statistics on how much the Americans increased in fifty years, and their migration towards the West. There were also statistics on how many Indians were living in the area, and how much the population decreased. 3. Contrast Thomas Jeffersons views as Secretary of State concerning Indian policy with those during his presidency. Why did his views change? When Jefferson was Secretary of State, he was fine with the Indians having their land since they lived there long before any American.He didnt want anyone to bother them. But when he became president, with the pressure he was getting from the people, he took their land. 4. How does Andrew Jacksons early political/military career foreshadow his Indian policies as President? Even before Jackson became president, he already thought of Indians as a nuisance, and wanted to get rid of them. 5. How does Zinns view of the War of 1812 contrast with traditional histories? Zinn believes that war wasnt necessary, it was just to take land. 6. Explain Zinns view of Arthur Schlesingers The Age of Jackson and Marvin Meyers The Jacksonian P ersuasion.He believes that the book mostly explains Jacksons good views, it makes him look like a very good guy. The book doesnt include what he did to the Indians. It only talks about his economic and political successes. 7. To what extent did the Cherokee nation change its culture in order to survive within the U. S? The Cherokee had to change location, culture, heritage, and even religion to survive. They even started to own slaves and welcomed missionaries and Christianity. Even though they did this, the whites still wouldnt accept them. 8. To what extent does Zinn juxtapose the Nullification Controversy of 1832 and the enforcement?

The Current Nature Of Human Relations Essays - Behavior, Free Essays

The Current Nature Of Human Relations Essays - Behavior, Free Essays The Current Nature Of Human Relations The Current Nature of Human Relations Group Project 1 Group Members: Kari Johnson Todd Lessman Mark Mellum Craig Popp Tim Weller Organizational Behavior Richard J. Sebastian March 9, 2000 The nature of human relations is evolutionary. It changes over time as our society adjusts to our ever-changing environment. These changes can be positive or negative, and sometimes necessary changes have both positive and negative consequences on our lives. It seems that the overall nature of current human relations can best be determined by examining human interaction in a few key areas. Interaction in the workplace, the school, and the home, as well as interaction among strangers, can be analyzed to provide an accurate description. There are many factors that can have an effect on our interaction in each of these settings. The workplace is an environment in which there is generally a high degree of personal interaction. Recent technological advances have made it much easier for people to communicate with one another. The emergence of the Internet in the 1990's has forever changed the way that people will interact with one another. E-mail has become a way to connect with co-workers anywhere in the world. No longer is one confined to only communicating with people in their department or office. The increasing popularity of cellular phones had also changed human relations. One can now be reached virtually anytime, anywhere. Although technology has made human relations easier in the workplace, it has also decreased the amount of face-to-face interaction. People are relying immensely on technology and it has become simply easier to send an e-mail to someone than to physically go and talk to them. Technology has also created the virtual workplace, where people can work from the confines of their own home. This has drastically reduced the amount of personal interaction between workers. This new type of workplace is only in its beginning phase and will continue to gain popularity in the next millennium. The cultural diversity of the typical workplace has increased greatly over the last decade. This increase in diversity has come from a couple of sources. First, many companies were forced to diversify to comply with equal opportunity laws. Second, companies began to discover that people from different ethnic backgrounds were helpful in working with a wide spectrum of customers. Regardless of the reasons, this increasing diversity in the workforce has caused a change in human interaction. People are now being exposed to others with many different cultural backgrounds, beliefs and customs. This has forced people to expand their horizons and learn the proper ways to relate to people from other cultures. Many times language barriers exist, and it can be difficult to establish effective communication. Diversity has, for the most part, improved human relations within the workplace. It has made people friendlier towards others who are different and helped them to develop and improve the way they interact with co-workers. Unfortunately, not all workplace interaction is changing for the better. The threat of violence has been an increased concern for many companies. Homicide is the leading cause of death in the finance, insurance, and real estate industries (McMurry, 96). Violence in the workplace is blamed for the decreasing quality of human relations in many companies. In the past, many people considered their co-workers as a kind of extended family, which gave them a sense of security. In today's workplace, however, layoffs and downsizing have taken away that family feeling. Workers today feel as though they are just one part of a machine, and could easily be replaced. This has degraded the quality of personal interaction in the workplace. A co-worker who at one time may have been like a brother to you is now a competitor who could easily replace you. This feeling has lessened the friendliness between workers and has led to increased workplace violence. The workplace is not the only institution in which we have seen an increase of violence in the 1990s. It seems that this trend toward violent behavior is crossing the generation gaps and invading our schools as well. Too often we are seeing children inflicting harm on other students in what should be a safe and supportive environment. The shootings at Columbine high school in Littleton, Colorado last year sent

Shinto Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shinto - Essay Example 1. Koshitsu Shinto, or the Shinto of the Imperial House, which includes the rituals performed by the Emperor. Until 1945 the Emperor was considered to be the descendant of Amaterasu, the most worshipped Shinto deity. Nowadays he is referred to as the "symbol of the state and of the unity of the people" in Japanese Constitution. Shoten and Nai-Shoten, the male and female clergy help the Emperor to perform the rituals. The most important ritual is Niinamesai, the offering the first fruits from the harvest to the deities. 2. Jinja Shinto, or Shrine Shinto. The most widespread form of Shinto in Japan. Until 1945 the followers of Shrine Shinto worshipped the emperor as a living god. This form of Shinto puts the emphasis on the importance of the shrines. Shinto is one of the most tolerant religions worldwide. Nowadays it has the elements of Buddhism, and of some other religions. Shinto accepts the elements of other religions, and Shintoists are usually very tolerable forwards the beliefs that are different from the ones they hold What is peculiar about Shinto is that while it has been a main Japanese religion for thousands of years, it has always shared is cultural and spiritual role with other religious movements, like Buddhism and Confucianism. Some researchers eliminate the four phases of the historical development of Shinto: Before the arrival of other religions in Japan Shinto and other religions together in Japan The Meiji reinterpretation of Shinto in the 19th century Shinto after World War II (Religion and Ethics, Shinto) Scott Littleton, the author of the comprehensive guide towards Shintoism, states that the Shintoistic iconographic evidence appears when the more complex Yayoi culture arrives (300BCE - 300CE) (2002). It is reported that before the 6th century CE there was "no formal Shinto religion, but many local cults that are nowadays grouped under the Shinto" (Religion and Ethics, Shinto). The ancient beliefs and customs were first written in the Kojiki [records of ancient matters], which were prepared under the imperial order and completed in 712 AD. (Reader, 1998) At that times Shinto was different from the religion we know nowadays. From the scientific point of view, the sets of beliefs that existed among different tribes that inhabited the territory of contemporary Japan cannot be referred to as "religion". In the minds of the ancient Japanese their beliefs were just a part of the world that surrounded them. Their beliefs were secularized, and used in their day-to day existence. The ancient Japanese developed Shinto to explain the world they saw around. Lots of natural phenomena were incomprehensible for people who lived at those times, thus they had to invent explanations. It's well known that the things people don't understand scare them the most. Like all the other ancient belief systems, Shinto was developed to help ancient people cope with their

Bob Marleys Uprising Album Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Bob Marleys Uprising Album - Essay Example This "Bob Marley’s Uprising Album" outlines one of the most popular album of the icon of the reggae music. The album uprising was the last song released by Marley one year before his death. This album has been reported to be the most religious of all the albums that he released as it directly addresses his Rastafarian beliefs. The album as number 41 in the American billboard black album charts and number 45 in the pop music charts. In the UKO charts the album was among the top ten best songs. Could you Beloved was number 5 in the top UK singles chart. Besides talking about are religious beliefs, the album covers a number of themes. His religion affects his singing from smoking marijuana; believe in Haile Selassie and being a vegetarian. The belief that Selassie was a black prophet from Africa who set the path to righteousness and that marijuana aided in meditation and brought the user close to God. The first song â€Å"Coming from the Colds shows Marley will to continue to fight over personal and political freedom notwithstanding the views of other simple minded people. He shows that the people that serve Jah have no limits in what they can achieve in life. In the song â€Å"Zion† he continues to exhort the message of hope in the first song. The song â€Å"work† voices one of everybody’s concerns about work where he asks why people have to work very hard in order to get a reward from people who do appreciate the effort. â€Å"Pimper’s paradise† addresses the issue of prostitution where Marley ad vices a girl to sop selling her body for money. and using drug as she would end up losing her soul. He also talks about cocaine in this song as a portrayal of some of the world

I - SEARCH PAPER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

I - SEARCH PAPER - Essay Example economy to an extent that can only be speculative. What is known is that the impact will be nothing short of catastrophic regarding both the earth and economy. In much of the previous century, oil was largely viewed worldwide as an economic asset and ever-expanding tool for increasing mobility needs and is today the primary cause of air pollution through the medium of oil-burning automobile engines. The dependence on oil now threatens many national economies, their security and the environment as well. Not only can the world not endure fossil fuels being pumped into the atmosphere at the current rate for the next 30 years, most experts agree that in 30 years, the world’s supply of oil will be largely depleted. Only by quickly implementing alternative sources of automobile fuel and electricity on a large scale can this looming disaster be averted. Hybrid cars seem to provide at least a temporary answer until better technologies are developed. Because they burn less oil, hybrid cars are considered a step in the right direction. This discussion will review many aspects of the hybrid car including an explanation of what a hybrid car is and how they save fuel thereby emitting fewer pollutants, their popularity and their risks. In An Inconvenient Truth, former Vice-President Al Gore demonstrates with clever use of computer graphics the extent to which the U.S. is, by far, the unenviable world leader in fossil fuel emissions. His plea to change energy use habits is good advice for everyone and every nation but is unambiguously directed at an American audience. â€Å"First, we need to make major changes in our preferences and habits concerning our personal cars, housing patterns, and consumption patterns. This is true especially in the U. S. because our nation consumes the lion’s share of the world’s fossil fuels to sustain our rich standard of living† (â€Å"An

Role of Prosody in Language Acquisition

Role of Prosody in Language Acquisition Discuss the role of prosody (i.e. rhythm and intonation) in language acquisition, from early sound perception to sematic and syntactic development. From muffled sounds heard within the womb to singing our favorite songs by memory, we humans have the astounding ability to acquire language. The remarkable thing is that we are born without full-blown language comprehension and production. How is it then that we steadily progress into competent speakers of our mother tongue? A big part lies in the prosody of our native language. Although babies may not be able to speak, they begin to learn about language prenatally. Given that our auditory system is well developed in the womb, a fetus can process sounds as early as 28 weeks of gestation, according to Fernald in 2001 and Saffran and colleagues in 2006 (as cited in Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). While speech sounds are muffled because the fetus is enclosed within the womb, preventing proper individual phoneme identification, there is still perception of rhythm and intonation (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). Rhythm and intonation are components of prosody, along with other sound features such as stress, pitch, loudness, and duration (Erekson, 2010, pg.80). Newborns are then able to gain prenatal language experience with sounds made by their mothers and other people close by (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.25). Babies even have a preference for sounds that became familiar when they were in the womb. In a study by Mehler and colleagues in 1988 it was found that prenatal expe rience allowed babies to distinguish their native language from a foreign language (Brooks Kempe, 2012, g.28). In their study, which utilized sucking rate, French newborns could tell French sentences apart from Russian sentences, even when the sentences were passed through a low-pass filter to make them sound like they would be heard from within the womb (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.28). This study showed that newborn infants are sensitive to prosodic characteristics of language (Brooks Kempe, 2012, pg.28). Prosody has important implications in language acquisition even before an infant is born but also continues to be an essential tool throughout their early years when they begin to engage with more experience speakers. Although infants pay attention to their surroundings and are taking in all the different sounds they hear, they are not the only active participants. When people interact with babies, they do not treat them in the same manner they would treat older children or adults. Instead, they expose them to a very distinct aspect of language known as infant-directed speech (IDS) or â€Å"motherese† (Goswami, 2008, pg.148). This special register helps facilitate language learning because of its exaggerated prosodic nature; this emphasizes the boundaries between words and phrases, thus making segmentation of the speech stream easier for babies (Goswami, 2008, pg.148). According to Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith in 2001 baby humans learn the rhythm of their native languages from birth to 2 months of age (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.495). During this time infants pay special attention to their language input and are particularly interested in IDS, which is characterized by simplified vocabular y, repetition, exaggerated vowels, higher tone, wider range of tone, and a slower tempo (Falk, 2004, pg. 495). These are important differences infants seem particularly sensitive to at young ages when prosody plays such a key in language acquisition. Aside from having characteristics based on the prosody of speech to help infants learn their native languages, IDS seems to be universal; it is seen in all languages in cultures, implying that this prosodic way of speaking serves a developmental purpose (Goswami, 2008, pg. 154). Adults break down the language for babies to understand better, and doing so almost instinctively, showing the intuitiveness prosody has in language comprehension and production. Prosody also helps babies learn a thing or two about syntax early on. According to Levitt in 1993, at 10 months infants start to babble in rhythms that are similar to the prosody of their language structure (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith say this may be due to the vocal turn-taking that mothers and their babies engage in, helping the babies learn the â€Å"rule† that conversationalists take turns speaking, as seen in their research in 2001 (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). Snowdon (1990) states that this â€Å"social syntax† may help babies learn other rules that are preliminary to learning syntax, the proper arrangement of elements within sentences (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). IDS therefore helps teach babies syntax through phonological bootstrapping, which is fulfilled by paying attention to the correlations between the prosodic cues of IDS and linguistic categories, according to the works of Burnham et al. in 2002, Gleitman Warn er in 1982, Morgan in 1986 and Morgan Demuth in 1996 (as cited in Falk, 2004, pg.496). An infant’s perception of prosodic cues in relation with linguistic categories is essential to learn about phonology, the boundaries between words or phrases in their native tongue, and syntax (Falk, 2004, pg.496). Prosody not only matters when it comes to learning the music of the first language learned but also seems to help teach other components of the language as well. As infants grow older and gain more experience with language, they continue a path towards language mastery and more complicated language use. While young babies use prosody to help tell words apart, it isn’t until they get older that prosody is fully used to tell syntactic relationships (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.94). However, there is mixed research as to when exactly children begin to use prosody to understand ambiguous sentences (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.94). A study in 2008 by Snedeker and Yuan found that children used prosodic phrasings of sentences to the syntax ‘correctly’ and perform an instrumental action (as cited in Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97-98). In their study they did a toy-moving scenario using sentences, such as ‘You can tap the frog with the flower’, with two disambiguating phrasings (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97). Regardless of the prosodic phrasing, such as [You can tap the frog] [with the flower] versus [You can tap] [the frog with the flower], re sults showed that the children used the location of prosodic boundaries to interpret the correct syntax of the sentences (Speer Ito, 2009, pg.97). Additionally, prosody seems to help syntactic acquisition early on. In a study in 2014 by Hawthorne and Gerken, it was found that 19 month old infants treated prosodically-grouped words as more cohesive and constituent-like than words that straddled a prosodic boundary (pg.420). Because syntactic constituency, groups of words that serve as cohesive units in sentences, is an important part in the early levels of syntax acquisition, prosody is seen as essential concept in language acquisition as a result (Hawthorne Gerken, 2014, pg.420). Although it may be debatable when syntax development exactly begins, a big puzzle piece to figure it out lies in prosody. Prosody continues to help humans from infancy to childhood not only in the syntax of their language but also the semantics. In a study by Nygaard et al in 2008 it was investigated whether speakers were able to successfully make prosodic correlates to meaning across semantic domains and if they used these cues to interpret meaning of novel words (pg.127). The study showed that listeners were able to match new words with their proper meaning significantly more if the prosody used matched the word correctly (Nygaard et al., 2009, pg.127). With their findings, Nygaard and colleagues were able to support that speech has reliable prosodic markers to word meaning and that listeners use the prosodic cues of words to differentiate their meanings (Nygaard et al., 2009, pg.127). New research is also finding prosody to be an essential component for semantic comprehension and development in children. It was previously suggested that children did not utilize prosody to figure out the meanings of n ew words. This was due to studies like Sasso’s 2003 investigation using children age 4 years old and adults, where she found that the children did not readily use prosodic cues to determine the meaning of a new word like the adults did, even when instructed to do so (Sasso, 2003). However, recently in 2011, Herold and colleagues investigated whether children utilized prosodic correlates to word meaning when interpreting new words (Herold et al., 2011, pg.229). They sought to examine if children would interpret a word spoken in a deep, loud, slow voice as referring to something larger than a word said in a high, quiet, and fast voice (Herold et al., 2011, pg.229). It was found that by 5 years old children were successfully utilizing prosody to interpret meaning (Herold et al., 2011, pg. 236). In addition, there were differences in performances between 4 year old and 5 year old participants, suggesting a developmental change in children’s ability to use prosodic cues to infer meaning (Herold et al., 2011, pg.236). Herold and colleagues believed this may do to 4 year olds not yet able to understand that prosody can be used as a tool for novel word interpretation due to insufficient experience with prosodic information and meaning relations (Herold et al., 2011, pg. 236-237). While semantic development in children does not seem to be fully and effectively utilized before age 5, it seems to be on meet a critical transition at this point after children have a certain amount of exposure to their native language. Many studies in linguistics and psychology demonstrate the multiple roles that prosody plays in the acquisition of language from prenatal infants to adults with fluency of their native language. What begins as sound that catches the interest of prenatal humans steadily becomes sound that serve a purpose in language comprehension. While research continues to explore the implications of prosody, there is no denying that it plays a vital and fundamental part in human language. References Brooks, P., Kempe, V. (2012). Language Development (pp. xv-383). Chichester: BPS Blackwell. Erekson, J. (2010). Prosody and Interpretation. Reading Horizons, 50(2), 80-98. Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol50/iss2/3 Falk, D. (2004). Prelinguistic Evolution in Early Hominins: Whence Motherese? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27(4), 491-541. Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://journals.cambridge.org.ezp.lib.rochester.edu/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=onlineaid=276842fileId=S0140525X04000111 Goswami, U. (2008). Cognitive Development: The Learning Brain (p. 457). Hove: Psychology Press. Hawthorne, K., Gerken, L. (2014). From pauses to clauses: Prosody facilitates learning of syntactic constituency. Cognition, 133(2), 420-428. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.07.013 Herold, D., Nygaard, L., Chicos, K., Namy, L. (2011). The developing role of prosody in novel word interpretation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(2), 229-241. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.005 Nygaard, L., Herold, D., Namy, L. (2009). The Semantics of Prosody: Acoustic and Perceptual Evidence of Prosodic Correlates to Word Meaning. Cognitive Science, 33(1), 127-146. doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2008.01007.x Sasso, D. S. (2003). The developing role of prosody in novel word comprehension. (Order No. 1413020, Emory University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 46-46 p. Retrieved April 24, 2015, from http://search.proquest.com/docview/250019098?accountid=13567 Speer, S., Ito, K. (2009). Prosody in First Language Acquisition Acquiring Intonation as a Tool to Organize Information in Conversation. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(1), 90-110. Retrieved April 24, 2015, from http://linguistics.osu.edu/files/Publication-Prosody in First Language Acquisition.pdf

The 2nd Vatican Council Essay -- History Religion Catholic Religious E

The 2nd Vatican Council Starting with the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Catholic Church established a tradition of ecumenical Council meetings to help decide on and shape the future of the Church. The most recent Council, called Vatican II, is considered to be both the largest ever in scope and also the most ground breaking in the amount of change it yielded. The changes in doctrine, dogma and procedure they enacted had major effects both inside and outside the Catholic Church and continue to today. Before the Vatican II the Catholic Church was an aging dinosaur, still crippled by the Reformation and unable to relate to contemporary man. It emerged from it a modern Church, tolerant and accepting of other religions, accessible to the laity and ready to grip with this age of reason over faith. I contend that the Vatican II council, while not being perfect or perhaps as progressive as it should have been, was just what the Catholic Church needed if it intended to maintain its status as one of the largest denominations on Earth. This paper is divided up in to two portions, the first a historical account of events of the council and the second an analysis of the most important of the 16 documents approved by the assembled Fathers and their effect on the Catholic Church. WHAT HAPPENED On January 25th 1959, Pope John XXIII announced that he was assembling what was to be the 21st ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church. He proclaimed to his closest advisors that the purpose of the council would be â€Å"to proclaim the truth, bring Christians closer to the faith, and contribute at the same time to peace and prosperity on earth.† Pope John immediately made it very clear that his papal reign, which up until this point was considered rather inconsequential, was going to make a difference. Councils of the church are called to contemplate and reevaluate the church’s position on matters such as church administration, doctrine and discipline. An ecumenical council is a worldwide council that can only be called by the pope. All bishops and other high-ranking members of the whole church are to be present. This was to be the first major council in the Church since the original Vatican Council that was convened in 1869-1870. Immediately after the pope’s order the Vatican’s bureaucracy of religious leaders, which is known as the Curia, sprung... ...ly did little more than grant official consent to the beliefs that were already present by that time in the minds of the majority of Fathers. It still was a necessary step and required a lot of bravery on the part of those involved. Without it the Church may well have become a trivial antiquity too stuck in its old ways to be in any way relevant to the modern world. Works Cited Basset, Bernard. Preist in the piazza. Goal line tribute to a council, with illustrations by Penelope Harter. Fresno: Academy Guild Press, 1963. Berkouwer, G.C. The Second Vatican Council and the new Catholicism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965 Caporale, Rock. Vatican II: Last of the councils. Balitmore: Helicon, 1964. Catholic Church: Pope John XXIII. Apostolic letter of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II: on the 25 anniversay of the promulgation of the conciliar Constitution â€Å"Sacrosanctum Concilium† on the Sacred Liturgy. Washington D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1988. MacEoin, Gary. What Happened at Rome? The Council and Its Implications for the Modern World. Garden City: Doubleday, 1966. Ratzinger, Joseph. Theological Highlights of Vatican II. New York: Paulist Press, 1967.